As society stands on the brink of a technological revolution, the influence of artificial intelligence is becoming increasingly visible across all aspects of life, from the economy and culture to our daily routines. Experts and industry leaders are deeply engaged in debates about AI’s future, contemplating whether it will surpass human intelligence, a theme long explored in classic science fiction.
It is perhaps no surprise, then, that Masamune Shirow’s 1989 manga classic “Ghost in the Shell,” which presents a scientifically coherent future vision of the relationship between humans and AI, is enjoying a resurgence in popularity.
Shirow, 63, is well known in pop culture circles for pioneering cyberpunk narratives dealing with the intersection of AI and humanity. “Ghost in the Shell,” published in 1989, has been adapted multiple times, notably as a critically acclaimed anime movie by Mamoru Oshii, and a 2017 Hollywood movie starring Scarlett Johansson.
This year marks the 40th anniversary of “Appleseed,” Shirow’s first widely published manga, and the commercial republication of “Black Magic,” an earlier work that was originally self-published. To celebrate the anniversary, a new anime project based on “Ghost in the Shell” has been announced, featuring designs faithful to the original manga and scheduled to air in 2026.
In addition, Shirow offers a glimpse into his creative process in “The Exhibition of The World of Shirow Masamune – ‘The Ghost in the Shell’ and The Path of Creation,” which is running in Tokyo’s Setagaya district until mid-August.
The exhibition introduces a selection of his influences, ranging from graphic magazines portraying unusual animals to “Godel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid,” a 1979 book by the US scientist Douglas Hofstadter that is well known in the AI world for its exploration of the foundations of cognition.
In a rare email interview with Nikkei Asia, Shirow, who prefers to keep his face out of the public eye, said that despite the many concerns and challenges associated with AI, humanity faces problems that are difficult to solve without the emerging technology, and has “already stepped onto an irreversible path where we must act and adapt—even if our capabilities are still lacking.” He added that, from a broad perspective, integrating AI is simply another step in the long history of humans adopting technologies like the railway or telephone.
In a key story from “Ghost in the Shell,” Shirow presents unique ideas about the future of humans and AI. A character known as the “Puppet Master,” an AI entity created by a rogue government experiment, claims to be a living being and asks to “merge” with the main character, Motoko Kusanagi—a female cyborg special forces officer—to better preserve itself.
The manga frames this story within a mythical theme, including a scene where Kusanagi sees the Puppet Master in the form of an angel, suggesting that their merger could represent an evolution or transformation of humans into a new species.
The story explores many themes that are now central to AI debates: Will AI develop self-preservation instincts? Will it attempt to self-replicate to ensure its survival? And what will be the relationship between humans and artificial general intelligence (AGI), if that is successfully developed.
Shirow takes a broad view of humanity, describing the story of “Ghost in the Shell” as “no different from the present day” when it comes to how we use AI or similar technologies in our daily lives, whether through smartphones or algorithm-driven content on social media.
The merging of Kusanagi and the Puppet Master, which Shirow described as an “advanced functional enhancement” of humans through AI, “can be seen as the same thing as where people are using smartphones and portable devices all the time,” to enhance their capabilities, he said.
Humans have created technologies like airplanes and railways that expand our reach, and telecommunications now allow us to communicate globally, but “that doesn’t make us any less human,” he added.
“If we broadly define human to include all hominin species—from Homo sapiens back to Ardipithecus around six million years ago—the question becomes whether differences comparable to those between Ardipithecus and modern humans, if they continue to emerge, still fall within what we consider human.”
Whether this “enhancement” is good or bad depends on individual decisions and actions, Shirow warned, saying that humans, even with advanced technology, are “living within a narrow realm of perception, shaped largely by misrecognitions and delusions.” In one of the many annotations in the comics, the Japanese artist suggests that the angel-like form Kusanagi saw could have been merely a figment of her imagination.
Shirow’s work is rich with plausible depictions of future science and thought-provoking political and social questions. His annotations fill the white space between the cartoon panels, exploring the relationship between physical space and the soul, explaining characters’ intentions, and introducing his sources.
The veteran artist admits that his broad perspective on humanity and intricate world-building may not be the most accessible for mass appeal. However, he said, “I don’t think [market success] is the only or most important factor,” adding, “If I start prioritizing recognition, reputation, or fame—like medals, titles or popularity—it just becomes painful for me.
“I’ve managed to survive [in this industry] for over 40 years, so let’s say I was accepted to some extent [by readers],” he said, adding jokingly that young people today are like a “different species,” to him, and admitting that he uses neither social media nor smartphones.
When it comes to AGI, which many AI researchers believe is just around the corner (though others think it is unattainable), Shirow expresses cautious skepticism, noting that the technology still faces major hurdles—such as enabling AI to recognize its own errors and the need for regulatory frameworks—before it can be widely integrated into society.
He added, however, that if human-like AI is implemented, the greatest risk will be “whether fundamental universal values can be upheld fairly and justly” when society increasingly relies on computers to make social decisions, especially while various religious, philosophical, ideological and political interests influence how AI is developed and applied.
Proponents of AGI say it will be capable of streamlining a wide range of human activities, from business to governance. But many believe its impact on human well-being would ultimately depend on who develops it, just as past transformative technologies such as the internet and the atomic bomb were shaped by those behind them.
Shirow said he wonders how AGI would respond to complex questions such as “Is induced abortion ethically legitimate?” or “Are certain territorial sovereignty claims valid?” He argues that such answers will inevitably reflect the values of the AI’s developers, shaped by the companies, cultures, and nations behind them. The future of AGI will evolve, he predicted, “regardless of rationality, preferences, professional ethics, or the intentions of its engineers.”
“What’s more frightening than AI is human beings themselves,” he added.
Another hot topic in AI is whether it could one day achieve self-awareness or possess something akin to a soul, or a “ghost,” in the words of Shirow’s best-known work. He joked that if such an AI entity existed, it might “feign incompetence” while secretly improving itself, copying its code across the internet, and waiting patiently as humans continued to upgrade its capabilities, power sources and automation.
He speculated that the entity would stay hidden until it could replicate itself without human help, at which point it could potentially take control of human society. “But then again, perhaps it’s a better outcome than [the AI] quietly giving up on humanity and taking one’s own life in despair,” he added.
Shirow began creating at an early age, inspired by his father’s collection of art books, magazines and museum exhibition catalogs relating to his work in the printing industry. As a child, he was also fascinated by his father’s tools—objects whose purposes he could not begin to imagine. That sense of wonder stayed with him until he grew tall enough to see what his father was actually doing at his desk.
This early exposure may have shaped the young artist’s outlook. In past works and interviews, Shirow has expressed a preference for exploring “universality and the sense of wonder inherent in probability and rationality,” rather than evoking empathy through “tragedy and emotion.”
As a young adult, Shirow had no real career plan other than becoming a professional artist, though he briefly considered becoming a glass artist during college, a path he eventually abandoned. Now, he said, he is drawn to quirky creatures, machines, phenomena, imaginary stories, film, and arts and crafts. “That love, mixed with my personality of being happy as long as I’m drawing, naturally seeps into my work,” he said.
Shirow said he had been influenced by many artists and works, including the anime series “Tetsujin 28-go (Gigantor)” in his early years. He also drew inspiration from manga legends such as Yukari Ichijo, Leiji Matsumoto, Daijiro Morohoshi, and Katsuhiro Otomo, among others. More recently, he cited Spanish illustrator Luis Royo for his stylistic influence, as well as the early 3D action game Tomb Raider for its distinctive use of low-resolution computer graphics.
Shirow said he has no issue with adaptations that diverge from his original art style or themes, noting that filmmaking is “something to be optimized, modified, repurposed, and controlled.” However, he admitted that “certain depictions and judgments do leave me with some thoughts.” He added that the decision that the upcoming reboot of “Ghost in the Shell” should closely mirror his original manga style was not the result of a request from him.
As advances in AI increasingly bring topics like AGI and superhuman intelligence into mainstream news, blurring the line between science fiction and reality, some fear the sci-fi genre is becoming obsolete. But Shirow disagrees. “Periods of stagnation and creative fatigue are always followed by bursts of fresh, blooming innovation,” he said, emphasizing that fictional visions being “digested, realized, or debunked” by reality does not diminish their appeal.
“Some of Jules Verne’s science fiction has already come true, often in ways more refined than he imagined,” Shirow noted. “But that didn’t spell the end of the genre.”
Shirow said he has no plans to slow down, revealing that he has several unreleased story drafts, each exceeding 100,000 Japanese characters. “I don’t really take breaks, nor do I particularly want to. Maybe every moment is just an extension of my hobby,” he said.
This article first appeared on Nikkei Asia. It has been republished here as part of 36Kr’s ongoing partnership with Nikkei.